FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS MANAGEMENT 4E
Contents in full
Preface
Intended audience
Acknowledgments
About the authors
New in this edition
Text at a glance
Proven effective
Connect support
Visual progress
Organisation and content
Chapter 1
Why are financial institutions special?
Introduction
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS’ SPECIALNESS
FI function as broker
FI function as asset transformer
Information costs
FI role as delegated monitor
FI role as information producer
Liquidity and price risk
Other special services
Reduced transaction costs
Maturity intermediation
OTHER ASPECTS OF SPECIALNESS
The transmission of monetary policy
Credit allocation
Intergenerational wealth transfers or time intermediation
Payment services
Denomination intermediation
SPECIALNESS AND REGULATION
Regulator structure and coordination
Preliminary assessment
Observation
Role and responsibilities of CFR
Membership
Transparency and accountability
Policy options for consultation
Formalise the role of the CFR within statute
Increase CFR membership to include the ACCC, AUSTRAC and the ATO
Increase the reporting by the CFR
Safety and soundness regulation
Monetary policy regulation
Credit allocation regulation
Consumer and investor protection regulation
Entry regulation
THE CHANGING DYNAMICS OF SPECIALNESS
Trends in Australia
Global trends
The rise of financial services holding companies
THE SHIFT AWAY FROM RISK MEASUREMENT AND MANAGEMENT AND THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS
Endnotes
Chapter 2
The financial services industry: depository institutions
Introduction
BANKS
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet and trends
Assets
Liabilities
Capital
Off-balance-sheet activities
Bank performance
The ‘too big to fail’ subsidy
Introduction
The task
Summary of results
Summary of implicit subsidy calculation
Calculation and key assumptions
Calculating the credit rating uplift
Calculating the stock of uninsured liabilities
CREDIT UNIONS AND BUILDING SOCIETIES
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet, performance and trends
THE REGULATION OF AUSTRALIAN DEPOSITORY INSTITUTIONS
The key legislation
The regulatory agencies
Australian Prudential Regulation Authority
Australian Securities and Investments Commission
Reserve Bank of Australia
Council of Financial Regulators
Australian Prudential Supervision Framework 15
Supervision outcomes and responses and entity risk assessment 18
Probability and impact rating system (PAIRS) 20
APRA’s supervisory oversight and response system (SOARS) 22
Supervisory activities
Supporting material and infrastructure and quality assurance within the framework
Overview of the regulation of depository institutions
1. Capital adequacy—measurement of capital and risk-adjusted assets and disclosure
2. Liquidity
3. Credit quality, large exposures, related organisations, outsourcing and business continuity management
Chapter 3
The financial services industry: other financial institutions
Introduction
INSURERS AND FUND MANAGERS
Life insurance
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Ordinary business
Superannuation business of life insurers
Balance sheet, performance and trends
Regulation
General insurance
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet, performance and trends
Loss risk
Property versus liability
Severity versus frequency
Long-tail versus short-tail
Product inflation versus social inflation
Reinsurance
Measuring loss risk
Expense risk
Investment yield/return risk
Regulation
Superannuation funds
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet, performance and trends
Regulation
Managed funds and unit trusts
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet and trends
Regulation
OTHER FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Money market corporations
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet and trends
Regulation
Finance companies
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet and trends
Regulation
Securitisation vehicles
Size, structure and composition of the industry
Balance sheet and trends
Regulation
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTIONS
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 4
Risks of financial institutions
Introduction
INTEREST RATE RISK
MARKET RISK
CREDIT RISK
COUNTRY OR SOVEREIGN RISK
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK
LIQUIDITY RISK
OFF-BALANCE-SHEET RISK
TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONAL RISKS
Technology risk
Operational risk
INSOLVENCY RISK
OTHER RISKS AND THE INTERACTION OF RISKS
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
Chapter 5
Interest rate risk measurement: the repricing model
Introduction
THE LEVEL AND MOVEMENT OF INTEREST RATES
THE REPRICING MODEL
Rate-sensitive assets
Rate-sensitive liabilities
Changes to NII—equal changes in rates on RSAs and RSLs
Changes to NII—unequal changes in rates on RSAs and RSLs
WEAKNESSES OF THE REPRICING MODEL
Market value effects
Over-aggregation
The problem of runoffs
Cash flows from off-balance-sheet activities
Calculating and using the repricing gap
Unbiased expectations theory
Liquidity premium theory
Market segmentation theory
Chapter 6
Interest rate risk measurement: the duration model
Introduction
DURATION: A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION
A GENERAL FORMULA FOR DURATION
The duration of interest-bearing bonds
The duration of a zero-coupon bond
The duration of a consol bond (perpetuity)
FEATURES OF DURATION
Duration and maturity
Duration and yield
Duration and coupon interest
THE ECONOMIC MEANING OF DURATION
Semi-annual coupon bonds
USING DURATION TO MEASURE AN FI’s INTEREST RATE RISK
Duration and immunising future payments
1. Buy five-year maturity zero-coupon bonds
2. Buy five-year duration coupon bonds
Duration and interest rate risk in the whole balance sheet of an FI
The duration gap for a financial institution
IMMUNISATION AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
DIFFICULTIES OF APPLYING THE DURATION MODEL
Duration matching can be costly
Immunisation is a dynamic problem
Large interest rate changes and convexity
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
Calculating and using duration gap
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Calculation of CX
The problem of the flat-term structure
The problem of default risk
Floating rate loans and bonds
Demand deposits and savings deposits
Mortgages and mortage-backed securities
Futures, options, swaps, caps and other contingent claims
Chapter 7
Managing interest rate risk using off-balance-sheet instruments
Introduction
FORWARD AND FUTURES CONTRACTS
Spot contracts
Forward contracts
Futures contracts
FORWARD CONTRACTS AND HEDGING INTEREST RATE RISK
HEDGING INTEREST RATE RISK WITH FUTURES CONTRACTS
Microhedging
Macrohedging
Routine hedging versus selective hedging
Macrohedging with futures
The risk-minimising futures position
Short hedge
On-balance-sheet
Off-balance-sheet
The problem of basis risk
OPTIONS CONTRACTS
Basic features of options
Buying a call option on a bond
Writing a call option on a bond
Buying a put option on a bond
Writing a put option on a bond
WRITING VERSUS BUYING OPTIONS
Economic reasons for not writing options
Regulatory reasons for not writing options
Futures versus options hedging
THE MECHANICS OF HEDGING A BOND OR BOND PORTFOLIO USING OPTIONSOPTIONS CONTRACTS 15
Hedging with bond options using the binomial model
ACTUAL BOND OPTIONS
USING OPTIONS TO HEDGE THE INTEREST RATE RISK OF THE BALANCE SHEET
Basis risk
INTEREST RATE SWAPS
Swap markets
The generic interest rate swap
Realised cash flows on an interest rate swap
Macrohedging with swaps
Interest rate swaps and credit risk concerns
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
WEB QUESTIONS
Hedging interest rate risk with futures versus options
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 8
Managing interest rate risk using loan sales and securitisation
Introduction
LOAN SALES
Types of loan sales contracts
Participations
Assignments
Using a loan sale to manage interest rate risk
Why FIs sell loans
Reserve requirements
Fee income
Capital costs
Credit risk
Liquidity risk
Factors encouraging loan sales growth in the future
BIS capital requirements
Market value accounting
Credit ratings
Purchase and sale of foreign bank loans
SECURITISATION
Converting on-balance-sheet assets to a securitised asset
The pass-through security
Interest rate risk: incentives and mechanics of pass-through security creation
Prepayment risk on pass-through securities
Refinancing
Housing turnover
Good news effects
Bad news effects
Prepayment models
The collateralised mortgage obligation (CMO)
Creation of CMOs
Class A, B and C bond buyers
Class A
Class B
Class C
Other CMO classes
Class Z
Class R
The mortgage-backed bond (MBB)
Cover pool monitor
APRA powers
Club structures
Can all assets be securitised?
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
WEB QUESTION
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 9
Market risk
Introduction
CALCULATING MARKET RISK EXPOSURE
THE RISKMETRICS MODEL
The market risk of fixed-income securities
Foreign exchange
Equities
Portfolio aggregation
THE HISTORIC (BACK SIMULATION) APPROACH
The historic (back simulation) model versus RiskMetrics
Approach
VaR limits
Back-testing
Back-testing results
The Monte Carlo simulation approach 34
Expected shortfall
Value at Risk (VaR)
Expected shortfall
REGULATORY MODELS: THE BIS STANDARDISED FRAMEWORK
Partial risk factor approach
Fuller risk factor approach
Step 1. Assign each instrument to applicable risk factors
Step 2. Determine the size of the net risk position in each risk factor
Step 3. Aggregate overall risk position across risk factors
THE BIS REGULATIONS AND LARGE BANK INTERNAL MODELS
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTION
Calculating DEAR on an FI’s trading portfolio
Fixed-income securities
Foreign exchange contracts
Equities
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 10
Credit risk I: individual loan risk
Introduction
CREDIT QUALITY PROBLEMS
Regulatory use of macroprudential powers
Observation by FSI
Policy options for consultation
Assess the prudential perimeter
Additional macroprudential powers
TYPES OF LOANS
Business loans
China—Central Bank supports lending to small business
India—Risk capital firms back small business lenders
Housing loans
Consumer or individual loans
Regulations restricting competition
Other loans
Loan defaults
CALCULATING THE RETURN ON A LOAN
The contractually promised return on a loan
LIBOR Interest Rate Probe Escalates: Barclays Agrees to Pay Record Fine;
The expected return on a loan
RETAIL VERSUS WHOLESALE CREDIT DECISIONS
Retail
Wholesale
MEASUREMENT OF CREDIT RISK
DEFAULT RISK MODELS
Qualitative models
Borrower-specific factors
Reputation
Leverage
Volatility of earnings
Collateral
Market-specific factors
The business cycle
The level of interest rates
Quantitative models
Credit scoring models
Linear probability model and logit model
Linear discriminant models
NEWER MODELS OF CREDIT RISK MEASUREMENT AND PRICING
Term structure derivation of credit risk
Probability of default on a one-period debt instrument
Probability of default on a multi-period debt instrument
Mortality-rate derivation of credit risk
RAROC models
Using duration to estimate loan risk
Using loan default rates to estimate loan risk
Option models of default risk 35
Theoretical framework
The borrower’s payoff from loans
The debt holder’s payoff from loans
Applying the option valuation model to the calculation of default risk premiums
The Moody’s Analytics option model and expected default frequency
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
WEB QUESTIONS
Loan analysis
PERTINENT WEBSITES
Chapter 11
Credit risk II: loan portfolio and concentration risk
Introduction
SIMPLE MODELS OF LOAN CONCENTRATION RISK
LOAN PORTFOLIO DIVERSIFICATION AND MODERN PORTFOLIO THEORY (MPT)
Moody’s Analytics Portfolio manager model
Return on the loan (Ri )
Risk of the loan (σ i )
Correlation (ρ ij )
Partial applications of portfolio theory
Loan volume-based models
Loan loss ratio–based models
REGULATORY MODELS
USE OF DERIVATIVES TO HEDGE CREDIT RISK
Credit forward contracts and credit risk hedging
Futures contracts and catastrophe risk
Hedging credit risk with options
Hedging catastrophe risk with call spread options
Credit swaps
Total return swaps
Pure credit swaps
CDS indices
Swaps and credit risk concerns
Netting and swaps
Payment flows are interest and not principal
Standby letters of credit
USE OF LOAN SALES AND SECURITISATION TO MANAGE CREDIT RISK
Loan sales
Asset securitisation
Removal of credit risk
Reduction of concentration risk
Maintenance of customer relationships
Capital adequacy regulations
Moral hazard issues
Chapter 12
Sovereign risk
Introduction
CREDIT RISK VERSUS SOVEREIGN RISK
DEBT REPUDIATION VERSUS DEBT RESCHEDULING
COUNTRY RISK EVALUATION
Outside evaluation models
The Euromoney Country Risk Index
The Economist Intelligence Unit
The Institutional Investor index
Internal evaluation models
Statistical models
The debt service ratio (DSR)
The import ratio (IR)
Investment ratio (INVR)
Variance of export revenue (VAREX)
Domestic money supply growth (MG)
Problems with statistical CRA models
Measurement of key variables
Population groups
Political risk factors
Portfolio aspects
Incentive aspects
Borrowers
Benefits
Costs
Lenders (FIs)
Benefits
Costs
Stability
USING MARKET DATA TO MEASURE RISK: THE SECONDARY MARKET FOR LDC AND EMERGING MARKET DEBT
The structure of the market
Sellers
Buyers
The early market for sovereign debt
Today’s market for sovereign debt
Sovereign bonds
Performing loans
Non-performing loans
Growing stability in Europe
Continuing downward trend in the financial sector
Correlation of S&P ratings and corporate defaults
The sovereign debt crisis continues to be felt
Chapter 13
Foreign exchange risk
Introduction
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES AND TRANSACTIONS
Foreign exchange rates
Foreign exchange transactions
SOURCES OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK EXPOSURE
Foreign exchange rate volatility and FX exposure
FOREIGN CURRENCY TRADING
FX trading activities
INTERACTION OF INTEREST RATES, INFLATION AND EXCHANGE RATES
Purchasing power parity
Interest rate parity
FOREIGN ASSET AND LIABILITY POSITIONS
The return and risk of foreign investments
Risk and hedging
ON-BALANCE-SHEET HEDGING
MANAGING FX RISK USING DERIVATIVE INSTRUMENTS
Hedging with forwards
Hedging with futures
Estimating the hedge ratio 9
Using options to hedge FX risk
Using currency swaps to hedge FX risk
Fixed–fixed currency swaps
Fixed–floating currency swaps
MULTICURRENCY FOREIGN ASSET–LIABILITY POSITIONS
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTION
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 14
Liquidity risk
Introduction
CAUSES OF LIQUIDITY RISK
LIQUIDITY RISK AT DEPOSITORY INSTITUTIONS
Liability-side liquidity risk
Deposits
Purchased liquidity management
Stored liquidity management
Asset-side liquidity risk
Measuring a depository institution’s liquidity exposure
Sources and uses of liquidity
Peer group ratio comparisons
Liquidity index
Financing gap and the financing requirement
New liquidity risk measures implemented by the BIS
Maturity ladder/scenario analysis
Other liquidity risk control measures
Liquidity planning
Liquidity risk, unexpected deposit drains and bank runs
Deposit drains and bank run liquidity risk
Bank runs, the discount window and deposit guarantees
Liquidity and financial system stability
Reserve Bank role in maintaining financial system stability
LIQUIDITY RISK IN OTHER FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Life insurance companies
General insurers
Managed funds
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTION
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 15
Liability and liquidity management
Introduction
LIQUID ASSET MANAGEMENT
Monetary policy implementation reasons
Taxation reasons
THE COMPOSITION OF THE LIQUID ASSET PORTFOLIO
RETURN–RISK TRADE-OFF FOR LIQUID ASSETS
The liquid asset reserve management problem for depository institutions
Management of exchange settlement funds
Payment settlement
RBA liquidity facilities
Liquidity management as a knife-edge management problem
LIABILITY MANAGEMENT
Funding risk and cost
CHOICE OF LIABILITY STRUCTURE
DEPOSIT LIABILITIES
Cheque account and other demand deposits
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Savings accounts
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Cash management/investment savings accounts
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Fixed-term deposits
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Negotiable certificates of deposit (NCDs)
Withdrawal risk
Costs
NON-DEPOSIT LIABILITIES
Interbank funds
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Repurchase agreements (Repos)
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Covered bonds
Withdrawal risk
Costs
Other borrowings
Bank accepted bills (BAB)
Commercial bills or non-bank bills
Commercial paper or promissory notes
Subordinated debt, medium-term notes and long-term borrowings
LIQUIDITY REGULATION
Liquidity management framework
Contingency funding plan
Minimum quantitative requirements
LCR regime ADIs
The LCR requirement
The ‘name crisis’ scenario (phased out 31 December 2014)
The ‘going concern’ scenario
Stress testing
MLH regime ADIs
Net stable funding ratio (NSFR)
Improved global liquidity?
DEPOSITOR PROTECTION AND DEPOSIT GUARANTEES
Australian depositor protection mechanisms
Financial Claims Scheme 33
Guarantee Scheme for Large Deposits and Wholesale Funding
Financial Claims Scheme—Policyholders Compensation Facility
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTIONS
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 16
Off-balance-sheet risk
Introduction
OBS ACTIVITIES AND FI SOLVENCY
RETURNS AND RISKS OF OBS ACTIVITIES
Loan commitments
Interest rate risk
Draw-down risk
Credit risk
Aggregate funding risk
Documentary letters of credit and standby letters of credit
Documentary letters of credit
Standby letters of credit
Risks associated with letters of credit
Derivative contracts: futures, forwards, swaps and options
Why the economy needs risk management products, like derivatives
Credit risk concerns with derivative securities
Forward purchases and sales of when-issued securities
Risks associated with when-issued securities
Loans sold
Risks associated with loan sales
THE ROLE OF OBS ACTIVITIES IN REDUCING RISK
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTION
Calculating income on OBS activities
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 17
Technology and other operational risks
Introduction
WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF OPERATIONAL RISK?
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND PROFITABILITY
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON WHOLESALE AND RETAIL FINANCIAL SERVICE PRODUCTION
Wholesale financial services
Retail financial services
Advanced technology requirements
THE EFFECT OF TECHNOLOGY ON REVENUES AND COSTS
Technology and revenues
Technology and costs
Economies of scale
Economies of scope
TESTING FOR ECONOMIES OF SCALE AND ECONOMIES OF SCOPE
The production approach
The intermediation approach
EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ON COST ECONOMIES OF SCALE AND SCOPE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY EXPENDITURES
Economies of scale and scope and X-inefficiencies
TECHNOLOGY AND THE PAYMENTS SYSTEM
Trends in retail payments
Trends in high-value payments
Risks that arise in an electronic payment system
RTGS and daylight overdraft risk
Crime and fraud risk
Regulatory risk
Tax avoidance
Competition risk
OTHER OPERATIONAL RISKS
REGULATORY ISSUES AND TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONAL RISKS
Operational risk and FI insolvency
Consumer protection
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTIONS
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
Chapter 18
Capital management and adequacy
Introduction
CAPITAL AND INSOLVENCY RISK
Capital
The market value of capital
The book value of capital
The discrepancy between the market and book values of equity
Arguments against market value accounting
CAPITAL MANAGEMENT
REGULATION OF CAPITAL OF AUSTRALIAN DIs
Observation
Capital requirements
Country implementation of Basel III
Calibrate the prudential framework
International comparability of Australia’s prudential requirements
Basel accords: The evolution of DI capital regulation
Three-pillar framework
The third Basel accord: Basel III
PILLAR 1: CAPITAL ADEQUACY
Measurement of regulatory capital
Tier 1 (going concern) capital
Common equity Tier 1
Additional Tier 1 capital
Tier 2 (gone concern) capital
Capital adequacy ratios
Measuring risk-adjusted assets
Measurement of credit-risk-adjusted assets
On-balance-sheet activities
Off-balance-sheet activities
Calculating the total credit-risk-adjusted assets
Credit derivatives in the banking book
Operational risk and risk-based capital
Standardised approach to calculating operational risk capital charge
Advanced measurement approaches to operational risk capital charge
Market risk capital charge
Non-traded interest rate risk capital charge
Risk capital charge for securitisation credit risk
Covered bonds and capital adequacy
Calculating the capital adequacy ratios
Leverage ratio
Capital buffers
PILLAR 2: DI RISK ASSESSMENT AND SUPERVISION
PILLAR 3: CAPITAL AND RISK DISCLOSURE
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
WEB QUESTIONS
PERTINENT WEBSITES
ENDNOTES
APPENDIX 18A
Market risk capital charge for interest rate risk using the standardised approach
APPENDIX 18B
Criticisms of the risk-based capital ratio
Risk weights
Risk weights based on external credit rating agencies
Capital ratios
Portfolio aspects
DI specialness
Other risks
Competition
Leverage ratio
Slower growth and higher lending costs resulting from additional costs of regulation
Glossary
Index
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