Contents 6
Preface 18
Acknowledgments 20
Abbreviations 24
List of Tables 28
Chapter One Introduction 30
1.1 Defining the Problem 30
1.1.1 The Nomoi of Contemporary Voluntary Associations 35
1.1.2 Politeiai: Constitutions of Real and Ideal States 36
1.2 Fundamental Structures of the Covenanters’ Sect in the Three Rule Scrolls 37
1.2.1 The Damascus Rule and the Community Rule 37
1.2.1.1 Similarities Between the Camps and the Yaḥad 40
1.2.1.2 Differences between the Camps and the Yaḥad 41
1.2.1.3 The Relationship between the Camps and the Yaḥad 42
1.2.1.4 The Mss. of S and the Nature of the Yaḥad 43
1.2.2 The Rule for the Congregation (SE) 47
1.2.3 A Note on Qumran and the Yaḥad 48
1.3 Who Were the Covenanters? Essenes, Ḥaverim, and Pythagoreans 50
1.3.1 The Essene Hypothesis: Ancient Observers of the Covenanters’ Association 50
1.3.2 The Ḥavurot: Purity Associations with Assimilative Civic Ideology? 53
1.3.3 Essenes and Pythagoreans: Parallels and Problems 61
1.4 Comparative Study of the Covenanters and Greco-Roman Associations 66
1.4.1 Hans Bardtke 66
1.4.2 Other Short Studies 70
1.4.3 Moshe Weinfeld 71
1.4.4 Matthias Klinghardt 76
1.4.5 Sandra Walker-Ramisch 79
1.4.6 Albert Baumgarten 82
1.4.7 Marie-Françoise Baslez 85
1.4.8 Justin Taylor 88
1.4.9 Randolph Herrmann 90
1.5 Problems and Prospects for Methodological Clarity 94
1.5.1 Classification: Sect or Association? 94
1.5.2 What is “Influence”? 94
1.5.3 A Way Forward: Social Patterns in Rationalized Societies 96
1.5.4 Civic Ideology and Associational Typology 101
1.5.5 Associational Organization and Regulation as Expressions of Civic Ideology 102
1.5.6 Alternative Civic Ideology in the Covenanters’ Rule Scrolls 103
Chapter Two Civic Ideology and Associational Formation 104
2.1 Civic Ideology 104
2.1.1 State Civic Ideology 109
2.1.1.1 Mass Dissemination of State Civic Ideology 111
2.1.2 Assimilative Associational Civic Ideology: Enlisting Subjects as Witnesses to State Legitimacy 112
2.1.2.1 Patronage and Public Honors 113
2.1.2.2 Associations as Partners in Civic Order: Evidence from the Nomoi 116
2.1.2.3 Associational Organizational Patterns: Replicating State Patterns 119
2.1.2.4 Private Rites and Public Festivals: Enhancing Ties to the City 121
2.1.2.5 Praises, Prayers, and Policies in the Nomoi 121
2.1.2.6 Local Identities, Local Loyalties 123
2.2 Alternative Associational Civic Ideology 124
2.2.1 An Oikos of Friends: Epicurean Civic Ideology 125
2.2.1.1 Epicurean Critique of the State 126
2.2.1.2 The Epicurean Commonwealth 127
2.2.1.3 Epicurean Translocal Identity 129
2.2.1.4 Epicurean Open Citizenship 130
2.2.1.5 Epicurean Hierarchy 130
2.2.1.6 Epicurean Regulation 131
2.2.1.7 Epicurean Relations with the State 132
2.2.2 Citizens of the World: Cynic Civic Ideology 134
2.2.2.1 Cynic Critique of the State 134
2.2.2.2 The Cynic Commonwealth 135
2.2.2.3 Cynic Translocal Identity 137
2.2.2.4 Cynic Open Citizenship 137
2.2.2.5 Cynic Hierarchy and Regulation 138
2.2.2.6 Cynic Engagement with the Status Quo 139
2.2.2.7 A Cynic Republic? Diogenes’ Politeia 140
2.2.3 Think Cosmic, Act Local: Stoic Civic Ideology 141
2.2.3.1 Stoic Critique of the State 142
2.2.3.2 The Stoic Commonwealth 143
2.2.3.3 Stoic Open Citizenship and Translocal Identity 145
2.2.3.4 Stoic Hierarchy and Regulation 145
2.2.3.5 Stoic Engagement with the Status Quo 146
2.2.4 A Heavenly Polity: Paul’s Civic Ideology 149
2.2.4.1 Paul’s View of the State and Social Critique 149
2.2.4.2 The Commonwealth of Paul’s Ekklēsiai 150
2.2.4.3 The Ethnic Identity of the Ekklēsiai 151
2.2.4.4 Organization, Hierarchy, and Open Citizenship in the Ekklēsiai 152
2.2.4.5 Translocal Identity in the Ekklēsiai 153
2.2.4.6 Regulation of the Ekklēsiai 153
2.2.4.7 Relations between the Ekklēsiai and the State 154
2.2.5 A Separatist Myth: The Plebs of Fifth-Century Rome in the Political Imagination 155
2.2.5.1 The Organization and Law of the Plebs 156
2.2.5.2 Justice and the Historical Evolution of the Roman State 157
2.2.5.3 The Piety of the Plebs 158
2.2.5.4 Alternative Civic Ideology, Separation, and Reform 159
2.2.5.5 The Significance of the Plebs for the Study of the Covenanters 159
2.3 The Covenanters among Associations with Alternative Civic Ideology 160
Chapter Three The Damascus Rule: A Politeia for the Righteous Remnant of Israel in the Evil Age (CD A [CD 1–16], CD B [CD 19–20]; 4QDa–h [4Q266–273]) 162
3.1 Introduction 162
3.2 Alternative Civic ideology in the Admonition of D (4QDa 1:1–2:1; 4QDb 1; 4QDc 1; CD-A 1:1–8:21; CD-B 19–20) 164
3.2.1 Critique of the State 164
3.2.1.1 Improper Understanding of Theology 164
3.2.1.2 Departure from the Torah 164
3.2.1.3 Injustice, Defilement, and Impurity 165
3.2.1.4 Improper Understanding of Nature 165
3.2.1.5 The Combination of the Offices of King and High Priest 168
3.2.1.6 Human Thriving 169
3.2.1.7 History Repeats Itself 169
3.2.1.8 Politics Not Scholastics: The Orientation of the Covenanters’ Ideology 170
3.2.2 Positive Alternative Civic Ideology in D 173
3.2.2.1 Origins: the Teacher of Righteousness 173
3.2.2.2 The Political Identity of the Covenanters During the Evil Age 174
3.2.2.2.1 Remnant, Exiles, Camps, and Congregation 174
3.2.2.2.2 Sectarian Halaka: Courts and Cult 176
3.2.2.2.3 “Priests, Levites, and Sons of Zadok”: Cultic Identity 177
3.2.2.2.4 Cultic Separation 178
3.2.2.2.5 Juridical separation 179
3.2.2.2.6 Degrees of Separation 179
3.2.2.2.7 Further Positive Elements of the Covenanters’ Civic Ideology 179
3.2.3 Constitutional Analogies to Civic Ideology in the Admonition 182
3.2.3.1 The Historical Context of Constitution and Law: the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens 182
3.2.3.2 A Moral Indictment of the State: Xenophon’s Constitution of Athens 183
3.2.3.3 Associational Analogies to Statutes on Sacrifice 184
3.2.3.4 Associational and Constitutional Analogies to the Teacher of Righteousness as “Founder” 186
3.2.3.4.1 Founders, Reformers, and Restorers in Political Contexts 187
3.2.4 Juridical Authority and Civic Ideology in the Laws of D 188
3.3 The Jurisdiction of the Covenanters’ Courts in the Rule of the Assembly of the Cities of Israel (CD 15:1–12:20a and ||) 190
3.3.1 Statutes on Oaths (CD 15:1–5a || 4QDe fr. 6 i; 4QDf fr. 4 i–ii) 191
3.3.1.1 Constitutional Analogies to Statutes on Oaths 195
3.3.2 Statutes on Initiation and Exclusion (CD 15:5b–17 || 4QDa fr. 8 i 1–9) 196
3.3.2.1 The Constitutional Nature and Scriptural Sources of Initiation Laws in D 202
3.3.2.2 Women’s Education and Authority in Plato’s Republic and Laws 210
3.3.2.3 Analogies in Scripture, Rabbinic Judaism, and Political Discourse 212
3.3.2.4 Analogies to the Initiation Laws of D in the Associational Nomoi 214
3.3.2.5 Analogies to the Initiation Laws of D in the Politeiai and Political Conventions 216
3.3.2.6 The Status of Slaves in the Camps 219
3.3.3 Prohibition of Appeal to Gentile Courts in Capital Cases (CD 9:1 || 4QDa fr. 8 ii 8b–9; 4QDe fr. 6 iii 16a) 220
3.3.3.1 Associational Analogies to the Prohibition of Appeal to Public Courts 224
3.3.4 The Rule of Reproof: Protocol and Jurisdiction of the Sectarian Court (CD 9:2–8a || 4QDa fr. 8 ii 10; 4QDb fr. 9 i 2–3; 4QDe fr. 6 iii 16b–19) 227
3.3.4.1 Vengeance, Grudges, and Judgment against Outsiders 229
3.3.4.2 The Elders in the Rule of Reproof 231
3.3.4.3 Constitutional Analogies to the Rule of Reproof 232
3.3.5 Statutes on Oaths and Property (CD 9:8b–10:10a || 4QDa fr. 8 iii; 4QDe fr. 6 iv) 234
3.3.5.1 Oaths in the Presence of Judges (CD 9:8b–10a || 4QDe fr. 6 iv 1–2) 234
3.3.5.2 Oaths of Cursing in Stolen Property Cases (CD 9:10b–12 || 4QDe fr. 6 iv 3) 235
3.3.5.3 A Constitutional Analogy to Oaths of Cursing in Property Cases 236
3.3.6 Laws of Ownerless Property (CD 9:13–16a) 236
3.3.6.1 Who Received the Guilt Offering and the Ram? 238
3.3.6.2 A Constitutional Analogy to the Laws of Ownerless Property 241
3.3.7 Laws of Testimony in Capital and Property Crimes (CD 9:16b–23a || 4QDe fr. 6 iv 11–13a) 242
3.3.7.1 Capital Punishment in the Sect: Trials and Execution 245
3.3.7.2 Associational, Constitutional, and Biblical Analogies to Expulsion 249
3.3.7.3 Further Associational and Constitutional Analogies to the Law of Witnesses 251
3.3.8 Requirements for Witnesses (CD 9:23b–10:3 || 4QDe fr. 6 iv 13–15) 254
3.3.8.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 255
3.3.9 The Rule for Judges of the Congregation (CD 10:4–10a || 4QDa fr. 8 iii 4–9; 4QDe fr. 6 iv 15b–19) 260
3.3.9.1 Constitutional Analogies to the Rule for Judges 264
3.4 The Rule for the Assembly of the Camps (CD 12:22b–13:7a || 4QDa fr. 9 ii 5–16; 4QDb fr. 9 iv 1–3) 267
3.4.1 The Law on Skin Disease as an Expression of Civic Ideology 269
3.5 The Rule for the Examiner of the Camp (CD 13:7b–21 || 4QDa fr. 9 ii 17–iii 14; 4QDb fr. 9 ii 9–11) 270
3.5.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 275
3.6 The Rule for the Assembly of All Camps (CD 14:3-end of D) 279
3.6.1 General Protocol for the Assembly (CD 14:3–12a || 4QDa fr. 10 i 1–5; 4QDb fr. 9 v 6–14; 4QDc fr. 2 1–2) 280
3.6.1.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 283
3.6.2 The Rule for the Many (CD 14:12b–17a || 4QDa fr. 10 i 5b–10a) 287
3.6.2.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 288
3.6.3 Summary Statements on the Laws of D, and Introduction to the Penal Code (CD 14:17b–19 || 4QDa fr. 10 i 10–13) 293
3.6.4 The Penal Code of D (CD 14:20–23; 4QDa fr. 10 i 14–ii 15; 4QDd fr. 11 i 4–ii 2; 4QDe fr. 7 i 1–14) 295
3.6.5 Juridical Rites at the Assembly of All Camps (4QDa fr. 11 1–21; 4QDe fr. 7 i 15b–16a) 297
3.6.5.1 Constitutional and Legal Analogies 302
3.7 The Conclusion to D: Judgments for the Camps and Cities, in Accordance with the Final Interpretation of the Torah (4QDa fr. 11 18b–21 || 4QDe fr. 7 ii 11–15) 303
Chapter Four The Community Rule: Statutes for the Council of the Yaḥad (1QS || 4QSa–j [4Q255–264], 4Q275, 4Q279) 306
4.1 Introduction: The Cultic Civic Ideology of the Yaḥad 306
4.2 Civic Ideology in the Introductory Materials of S (1QS 1–4 || 4QSa; 4QSb; 4QSc; 4QSh) 309
4.2.1 Critique of the Judean State and Society 310
4.2.2 Positive Civic Ideology in the Introductory Materials 311
4.2.2.1 Introduction (1QS 1:1–15 || 4QSa fr. 1 1–6) 311
4.2.2.2 The Covenant Renewal Ceremony (1QS 1:16–3:12 || 4QSa fr. 2 1–9; 4QSb fr. 2–4; 4QSc fr. 1 i 1–ii 14; 4QSh fr. 1 1–4) 313
4.2.2.3 The Treatise on the Two Spirits (1QS 3:13–4:26 || 4QSc fr. 2 i 1–8) 316
4.2.2.4 Constitutional Analogies to the “Council of the Yaḥad” 318
4.2.2.5 Associational and Constitutional Analogies to the Covenant Renewal Ceremony 322
4.2.2.6 The Constitutional Significance of “The Curses of This Covenant” (1QS 2:16) 324
4.2.2.7 Further Constitutional Analogies 325
4.3 Statement of Purpose (1QS 5:1–7a || 4QSb fr. 4 ix 1–6a; 4QSd fr. 1a–b i 1–13) 327
4.3.1 Constitutional Claims: Atonement, Judgment, and Priestly Identity 329
4.3.1.1 Atonement and Judgment: the Cult and Courts of the Yaḥad 329
4.3.1.1.1 The Priestly Identity of the Yaḥad 330
4.3.1.1.2 Did Priestly Authority Change? The Recensions of 1QS and 4QSb,d Compared 332
4.3.1.1.3 The Recension of 1QS 334
4.3.1.1.4 The Recension of 4QSb,d 336
4.3.1.2 Translocal Identity and Alternative Civic Ideology in the Yaḥad 338
4.3.2 Constitutional Conventions from Scripture 339
מגורים 4.3.2.1, Exile, and Restoration 339
4.3.2.2 “Sons of Zadok”: an Ezekelian Honorific 339
המתנדבים 4.3.2.3: Volunteers for the Temple and Army of Israel 340
4.3.2.4 The Cultic Courts of the Yaḥad: Laws in Ezekiel and Deuteronomy 341
4.3.2.5 Circumcision, Repentance, and Restoration: Leviticus and Deuteronomy 342
4.4 General Rules for New Members (1QS 5:7b–20b || 4QSb fr. 4 6b–13; 4QSd fr. 1 i 5b–13) 342
4.4.1 The טהרה of the Men of Holiness and the Yahạd’s Cultic Ideology 346
4.4.2 Purity, Holiness, Judgment, and Atonement 353
4.4.3 Analogies to the Yaḥad’s Purity System in the Jerusalem Temple Cult 358
4.5 General Protocol (1QS 5:20b–6:1b; || 4QSd fr. 1 II 1–6a) 364
4.5.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 366
4.6 General Rules for Meetings (1QS 6:1c–7a; || 4QSd fr. 1 ii 5b–10a) 368
4.6.1 Analogies to the Yaḥad’s Common Life 372
4.6.2 Constitutional Analogies to the Common Life 372
4.7 The Rule for the Many (1QS 6:7b–13b || 4QSd fr. 1 ii 10b–iii 3) 379
4.7.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 383
4.8 Rules for Initiation (1QS 6:13c–23) 392
4.8.1 Initiation in S and D Compared 398
4.8.1.1 Purity and Property in the Yaḥad and Camps 399
4.8.1.2 Physical Examination in the Yaḥad? 400
4.8.2 Associational Analogies to Initiation in S and D 400
4.8.3 Constitutional Analogies to Initiation in S and D 403
4.8.3.1 Initiation and Enrollment in S, D, and SE: Anticipating Protocol in Restored Israel 403
4.8.3.2 Priests in the Temple: A Biblical Precedent for the Yaḥad’s Common Life 404
4.8.3.3 Analogies from the Politeiai 404
4.8.3.4 Further Military Analogies to Initiation in S 407
4.9 The Penal Code for the Yaḥad (1QS 6:24–7:25; || 4QSe fr. 1 4–fr. 2 9; 4QSg fr. 3 1–fr. 4 6) 410
4.9.1 The Literary Style and Structure of the Penal Code: Patterns of Punishment 411
4.9.2 The Penal Codes of the Yahad and the Camps: S, D, and 4Q265 Compared 416
4.9.3 Associational and Constitutional Analogies to the Penalties 419
4.10 The Four Sections of the Penal Code 423
4.10.1 General Transgressions of Word and Deed (1QS 6:24b–7:9a) 423
4.10.1.1 Private Property in the Penal Code? 427
4.10.1.2 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 428
4.10.1.2.1 A Military Analogy to Paying for Property with Registered Funds 428
4.10.1.2.2 Further Analogies 428
4.10.2 Unseemly Behavior at Sessions of the Many (1QS 7:9b–15a) 433
4.10.2.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 436
4.10.3 Slander and Murmuring at Sessions of the Many (1QS 7:15c–18a) 438
4.10.3.1 Juridical Analogies to the Authority of the Many 439
4.10.4 Treachery by Junior and Senior Members of the Yaḥad (1QS 7:18b–25) 441
4.10.4.1 The Constitutional Nature of Laws on Traitors 443
4.11 Statutes for the Fifteen Men of Perfect Holiness (1QS 8:1–9:11 and ||) 444
4.11.1 Opening Statements on the Men of Perfect Holiness (1QS 8:1–16a || 4QSe fr. 2 ii 9b–iii 6a; 4QSd fr. 3 vi 1–8) 445
4.11.2 Penal Code for the Men of Perfect Holiness (1QS 8:16b–9:2 || 4QSd fr. 3 vi 8b–fr. 4 vii 3) 452
4.11.2.1 Associational and Constitutional Analogies 456
4.11.3 Concluding Statements on the Yaḥad (1QS 9:3–11 || 4QSd fr. 4 vii 4–9) 461
4.11.3.1 Alternative Civic Ideology in the Conclusion to the Rules 463
4.12 Rules for the Maskil (1QS 9:12–26a || 4QSb fr. 6 i 1–7; 4QSd fr. 4 viii 1–10a; 4QSe fr. 2–4 iii 6–iv 8) 464
4.13 Liturgical Statutes and Schedule for the Maskil, and the Beginning of the Maskil’s Hymn (1QS 9:26b–10:8a || 4QSd fr. 4 ii 10b–fr. 5 ix 6) 467
4.13.1 Divinely Established Order in Other Maskil Texts 472
4.13.2 Constitutional Analogies to the Rule of the Maskil 476
4.13.2.1 Liturgy and Liturgical Laws in the Politeiai and Torah 476
4.13.2.2 Liturgy and Military Leadership: Preparation for the Day of Vengeance 477
Chapter Five The Rule for the Congregation: A Politeia for Restored Israel at the End of Days (1QSA || 4QSEa-i [4Q249a-i]) 484
5.1 Introduction 484
5.1.1 Civic Ideology in SE 486
5.2 The Literary Form of the Rule for the Congregation: A Comparison with Xenophon’s Politeia of the Spartans 486
5.3 Introduction to the Rule for the Entire Congregation of Israel (1QSa 1:1–3) 490
5.4 Purpose of the Plenary Meeting (1QSa 1:4–5 || 4QSEd,e,g) 491
5.5 General Introduction and Introduction to the Educational and Service Regimens (1QSa 1:6–8a) 493
5.5.1 Primary Education and Registration as a Citizen (1QSa 1:8b–9a) 495
5.5.1.1 Registration of Israelite Citizens in a משפחה 496
5.5.1.2 Education and Age Classes in SE and the Politeiai 499
5.5.2 The First Stage of Maturity, Marriage, and the Beginning of Advanced Training: Age Twenty (1QSa 1:9b–12a) 500
5.5.2.1 Constitutional Analogies to the Law of Marriage 505
5.5.3 The Second and Third Stages of Maturity and Advancement to Political Life: Twenty-Five and Thirty (1QSa 1:12b–16a) 507
5.5.3.1 Analogies to Age Classes, Maturity, and Political Service in Scripture and the Politeiai 509
5.5.4 General Principles of Selection for Service, Rank, and Advancement (1QSa 1:16b–19a) 512
5.5.4.1 A Restriction on Eligibility for Service in the Congregation (1QSa 1:19b–22a) 515
5.6 Protocol for Assemblies of the Congregation (1QSa 1:22b–2:22) 516
5.6.1 Concluding Statement on Protocol at Plenary Sessions of the Congregation of Israel (1QSa 1:22b–25a) 517
5.6.2 Assemblies of the Ruling Councils of Israel (1QSa 1:25b–27a) 519
5.6.3 Eligibility for Council(s) of the Yaḥad (1QSa 1:27b–2:3a) 520
5.6.3.1 The Congregation and the Council of the Yaḥad: a Link between S and D? 522
5.6.4 Restrictions on Participation in the Assembly and Council (1QSa 2:3b–11a) 523
5.7 Protocol for Meetings with the Messiah of Israel (1QSa 2:11b–22) 526
5.7.1 Rule for Plenary Sessions with the Messiah (1QSa 2:11c–17a) 527
5.7.2 Rule for Meals with the Messiah (1QSa 2:17b–22) 529
5.7.2.1 A Constitutional Analogy to Meals with the King 530
5.8 Conclusion: Ideal and Real Community Organization in the Rule for the Congregation 531
Chapter Six Conclusion and Synopsis 534
6.1 The Covenanters among Associations of the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Eras 534
6.2 The Covenanters among Associations with Alternative Civic Ideology 535
6.3 The Self-Definition, Organization, and Purpose of the Covenanters’ Sect 539
6.4 Channels of Influence 540
6.5 Introduction to the Synoptic Tables 542
Bibliography 554
Index of Modern Authors 578
Index of Ancient Sources 582
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